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      In-home wireless device tracks disease progression in Parkinson’s patients

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      Parkinson’s disease is the fastest-growing neurological disease, now affecting more than 10 million people worldwide, yet clinicians still face huge challenges in tracking its severity and progression.

      Clinicians typically evaluate patients by testing their motor skills and cognitive functions during clinic visits. These semisubjective measurements are often skewed by outside factors — perhaps a patient is tired after a long drive to the hospital. More than 40 percent of individuals with Parkinson’s are never treated by a neurologist or Parkinson’s specialist, often because they live too far from an urban center or have difficulty traveling.

      In an effort to address these problems, researchers from MIT and elsewhere demonstrated an in-home device that can monitor a patient’s movement and gait speed, which can be used to evaluate Parkinson’s severity, the progression of the disease, and the patient’s response to medication.

      The device, which is about the size of a Wi-Fi router, gathers data passively using radio signals that reflect off the patient’s body as they move around their home. The patient does not need to wear a gadget or change their behavior. (A recent study, for example, showed that this type of device could be used to detect Parkinson’s from a person’s breathing patterns while sleeping.)

      The researchers used these devices to conduct a one-year at-home study with 50 participants. They showed that, by using machine-learning algorithms to analyze the troves of data they passively gathered (more than 200,000 gait speed measurements), a clinician could track Parkinson’s progression and medication response more effectively than they would with periodic, in-clinic evaluations.

      “By being able to have a device in the home that can monitor a patient and tell the doctor remotely about the progression of the disease, and the patient’s medication response so they can attend to the patient even if the patient can’t come to the clinic — now they have real, reliable information — that actually goes a long way toward improving equity and access,” says senior author Dina Katabi, the Thuan and Nicole Pham Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), and a principle investigator in the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and the MIT Jameel Clinic.

      The co-lead authors are EECS graduate students Yingcheng Liu and Guo Zhang. The research is published today in Science Translational Medicine.

      A human radar

      This work utilizes a wireless device previously developed in the Katabi lab that analyzes radio signals that bounce off people’s bodies. It transmits signals that use a tiny fraction of the power of a Wi-Fi router — these super-low-power signals don’t interfere with other wireless devices in the home. While radio signals pass through walls and other solid objects, they are reflected off humans due to the water in our bodies.  

      This creates a “human radar” that can track the movement of a person in a room. Radio waves always travel at the same speed, so the length of time it takes the signals to reflect back to the device indicates how the person is moving.

      The device incorporates a machine-learning classifier that can pick out the precise radio signals reflected off the patient even when there are other people moving around the room. Advanced algorithms use these movement data to compute gait speed — how fast the person is walking.

      Because the device operates in the background and runs all day, every day, it can collect a massive amount of data. The researchers wanted to see if they could apply machine learning to these datasets to gain insights about the disease over time.

      They gathered 50 participants, 34 of whom had Parkinson’s, and conducted a one-year study of in-home gait measurements Through the study, the researchers collected more than 200,000 individual measurements that they averaged to smooth out variability due to the conditions irrelevant to the disease. (For example, a patient may hurry up to answer an alarm or walk slower when talking on the phone.)

      They used statistical methods to analyze the data and found that in-home gait speed can be used to effectively track Parkinson’s progression and severity. For instance, they showed that gait speed declined almost twice as fast for individuals with Parkinson’s, compared to those without. 

      “Monitoring the patient continuously as they move around the room enabled us to get really good measurements of their gait speed. And with so much data, we were able to perform aggregation that allowed us to see very small differences,” Zhang says.

      Better, faster results

      Drilling down on these variabilities offered some key insights. For instance, the researchers showed that daily fluctuations in a patient’s walking speed correspond with how they are responding to their medication — walking speed may improve after a dose and then begin to decline after a few hours, as the medication impact wears off.

      “This enables us to objectively measure how your mobility responds to your medication. Previously, this was very cumbersome to do because this medication effect could only be measured by having the patient keep a journal,” Liu says.

      A clinician could use these data to adjust medication dosage more effectively and accurately. This is especially important since drugs used to treat disease symptoms can cause serious side effects if the patient receives too much.

      The researchers were able to demonstrate statistically significant results regarding Parkinson’s progression after studying 50 people for just one year. By contrast, an often-cited study by the Michael J. Fox Foundation involved more than 500 individuals and monitored them for more than five years, Katabi says.

      “For a pharmaceutical company or a biotech company trying to develop medicines for this disease, this could greatly reduce the burden and cost and speed up the development of new therapies,” she adds.

      Katabi credits much of the study’s success to the dedicated team of scientists and clinicians who worked together to tackle the many difficulties that arose along the way. For one, they began the study before the Covid-19 pandemic, so team members initially visited people’s homes to set up the devices. When that was no longer possible, they developed a user-friendly phone app to remotely help participants as they deployed the device at home.

      Through the course of the study, they learned to automate processes and reduce effort, especially for the participants and clinical team.

      This knowledge will prove useful as they look to deploy devices in at-home studies of other neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s, ALS, and Huntington’s. They also want to explore how these methods could be used, in conjunction with other work from the Katabi lab showing that Parkinson’s can be diagnosed by monitoring breathing, to collect a holistic set of markers that could diagnose the disease early and then be used to track and treat it.

      “This radio-wave sensor can enable more care (and research) to migrate from hospitals to the home where it is most desired and needed,” says Ray Dorsey, a professor of neurology at the University of Rochester Medical Center, co-author of Ending Parkinson’s, and a co-author of this research paper. “Its potential is just beginning to be seen. We are moving toward a day where we can diagnose and predict disease at home. In the future, we may even be able to predict and ideally prevent events like falls and heart attacks.”

      This work is supported, in part, by the National Institutes of Health and the Michael J. Fox Foundation. More

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      AI that can learn the patterns of human language

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      Human languages are notoriously complex, and linguists have long thought it would be impossible to teach a machine how to analyze speech sounds and word structures in the way human investigators do.

      But researchers at MIT, Cornell University, and McGill University have taken a step in this direction. They have demonstrated an artificial intelligence system that can learn the rules and patterns of human languages on its own.

      When given words and examples of how those words change to express different grammatical functions (like tense, case, or gender) in one language, this machine-learning model comes up with rules that explain why the forms of those words change. For instance, it might learn that the letter “a” must be added to end of a word to make the masculine form feminine in Serbo-Croatian.

      This model can also automatically learn higher-level language patterns that can apply to many languages, enabling it to achieve better results.

      The researchers trained and tested the model using problems from linguistics textbooks that featured 58 different languages. Each problem had a set of words and corresponding word-form changes. The model was able to come up with a correct set of rules to describe those word-form changes for 60 percent of the problems.

      This system could be used to study language hypotheses and investigate subtle similarities in the way diverse languages transform words. It is especially unique because the system discovers models that can be readily understood by humans, and it acquires these models from small amounts of data, such as a few dozen words. And instead of using one massive dataset for a single task, the system utilizes many small datasets, which is closer to how scientists propose hypotheses — they look at multiple related datasets and come up with models to explain phenomena across those datasets.

      “One of the motivations of this work was our desire to study systems that learn models of datasets that is represented in a way that humans can understand. Instead of learning weights, can the model learn expressions or rules? And we wanted to see if we could build this system so it would learn on a whole battery of interrelated datasets, to make the system learn a little bit about how to better model each one,” says Kevin Ellis ’14, PhD ’20, an assistant professor of computer science at Cornell University and lead author of the paper.

      Joining Ellis on the paper are MIT faculty members Adam Albright, a professor of linguistics; Armando Solar-Lezama, a professor and associate director of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL); and Joshua B. Tenenbaum, the Paul E. Newton Career Development Professor of Cognitive Science and Computation in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and a member of CSAIL; as well as senior author

      Timothy J. O’Donnell, assistant professor in the Department of Linguistics at McGill University, and Canada CIFAR AI Chair at the Mila – Quebec Artificial Intelligence Institute.

      The research is published today in Nature Communications.

      Looking at language 

      In their quest to develop an AI system that could automatically learn a model from multiple related datasets, the researchers chose to explore the interaction of phonology (the study of sound patterns) and morphology (the study of word structure).

      Data from linguistics textbooks offered an ideal testbed because many languages share core features, and textbook problems showcase specific linguistic phenomena. Textbook problems can also be solved by college students in a fairly straightforward way, but those students typically have prior knowledge about phonology from past lessons they use to reason about new problems.

      Ellis, who earned his PhD at MIT and was jointly advised by Tenenbaum and Solar-Lezama, first learned about morphology and phonology in an MIT class co-taught by O’Donnell, who was a postdoc at the time, and Albright.

      “Linguists have thought that in order to really understand the rules of a human language, to empathize with what it is that makes the system tick, you have to be human. We wanted to see if we can emulate the kinds of knowledge and reasoning that humans (linguists) bring to the task,” says Albright.

      To build a model that could learn a set of rules for assembling words, which is called a grammar, the researchers used a machine-learning technique known as Bayesian Program Learning. With this technique, the model solves a problem by writing a computer program.

      In this case, the program is the grammar the model thinks is the most likely explanation of the words and meanings in a linguistics problem. They built the model using Sketch, a popular program synthesizer which was developed at MIT by Solar-Lezama.

      But Sketch can take a lot of time to reason about the most likely program. To get around this, the researchers had the model work one piece at a time, writing a small program to explain some data, then writing a larger program that modifies that small program to cover more data, and so on.

      They also designed the model so it learns what “good” programs tend to look like. For instance, it might learn some general rules on simple Russian problems that it would apply to a more complex problem in Polish because the languages are similar. This makes it easier for the model to solve the Polish problem.

      Tackling textbook problems

      When they tested the model using 70 textbook problems, it was able to find a grammar that matched the entire set of words in the problem in 60 percent of cases, and correctly matched most of the word-form changes in 79 percent of problems.

      The researchers also tried pre-programming the model with some knowledge it “should” have learned if it was taking a linguistics course, and showed that it could solve all problems better.

      “One challenge of this work was figuring out whether what the model was doing was reasonable. This isn’t a situation where there is one number that is the single right answer. There is a range of possible solutions which you might accept as right, close to right, etc.,” Albright says.

      The model often came up with unexpected solutions. In one instance, it discovered the expected answer to a Polish language problem, but also another correct answer that exploited a mistake in the textbook. This shows that the model could “debug” linguistics analyses, Ellis says.

      The researchers also conducted tests that showed the model was able to learn some general templates of phonological rules that could be applied across all problems.

      “One of the things that was most surprising is that we could learn across languages, but it didn’t seem to make a huge difference,” says Ellis. “That suggests two things. Maybe we need better methods for learning across problems. And maybe, if we can’t come up with those methods, this work can help us probe different ideas we have about what knowledge to share across problems.”

      In the future, the researchers want to use their model to find unexpected solutions to problems in other domains. They could also apply the technique to more situations where higher-level knowledge can be applied across interrelated datasets. For instance, perhaps they could develop a system to infer differential equations from datasets on the motion of different objects, says Ellis.

      “This work shows that we have some methods which can, to some extent, learn inductive biases. But I don’t think we’ve quite figured out, even for these textbook problems, the inductive bias that lets a linguist accept the plausible grammars and reject the ridiculous ones,” he adds.

      “This work opens up many exciting venues for future research. I am particularly intrigued by the possibility that the approach explored by Ellis and colleagues (Bayesian Program Learning, BPL) might speak to how infants acquire language,” says T. Florian Jaeger, a professor of brain and cognitive sciences and computer science at the University of Rochester, who was not an author of this paper. “Future work might ask, for example, under what additional induction biases (assumptions about universal grammar) the BPL approach can successfully achieve human-like learning behavior on the type of data infants observe during language acquisition. I think it would be fascinating to see whether inductive biases that are even more abstract than those considered by Ellis and his team — such as biases originating in the limits of human information processing (e.g., memory constraints on dependency length or capacity limits in the amount of information that can be processed per time) — would be sufficient to induce some of the patterns observed in human languages.”

      This work was funded, in part, by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the Center for Brains, Minds, and Machines, the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab, the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Fonds de Recherche du Québec – Société et Culture, the Canada CIFAR AI Chairs Program, the National Science Foundation (NSF), and an NSF graduate fellowship. More

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      Taking a magnifying glass to data center operations

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      When the MIT Lincoln Laboratory Supercomputing Center (LLSC) unveiled its TX-GAIA supercomputer in 2019, it provided the MIT community a powerful new resource for applying artificial intelligence to their research. Anyone at MIT can submit a job to the system, which churns through trillions of operations per second to train models for diverse applications, such as spotting tumors in medical images, discovering new drugs, or modeling climate effects. But with this great power comes the great responsibility of managing and operating it in a sustainable manner — and the team is looking for ways to improve.

      “We have these powerful computational tools that let researchers build intricate models to solve problems, but they can essentially be used as black boxes. What gets lost in there is whether we are actually using the hardware as effectively as we can,” says Siddharth Samsi, a research scientist in the LLSC. 

      To gain insight into this challenge, the LLSC has been collecting detailed data on TX-GAIA usage over the past year. More than a million user jobs later, the team has released the dataset open source to the computing community.

      Their goal is to empower computer scientists and data center operators to better understand avenues for data center optimization — an important task as processing needs continue to grow. They also see potential for leveraging AI in the data center itself, by using the data to develop models for predicting failure points, optimizing job scheduling, and improving energy efficiency. While cloud providers are actively working on optimizing their data centers, they do not often make their data or models available for the broader high-performance computing (HPC) community to leverage. The release of this dataset and associated code seeks to fill this space.

      “Data centers are changing. We have an explosion of hardware platforms, the types of workloads are evolving, and the types of people who are using data centers is changing,” says Vijay Gadepally, a senior researcher at the LLSC. “Until now, there hasn’t been a great way to analyze the impact to data centers. We see this research and dataset as a big step toward coming up with a principled approach to understanding how these variables interact with each other and then applying AI for insights and improvements.”

      Papers describing the dataset and potential applications have been accepted to a number of venues, including the IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture, the IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium, the Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, the IEEE High-Performance and Embedded Computing Conference, and International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis. 

      Workload classification

      Among the world’s TOP500 supercomputers, TX-GAIA combines traditional computing hardware (central processing units, or CPUs) with nearly 900 graphics processing unit (GPU) accelerators. These NVIDIA GPUs are specialized for deep learning, the class of AI that has given rise to speech recognition and computer vision.

      The dataset covers CPU, GPU, and memory usage by job; scheduling logs; and physical monitoring data. Compared to similar datasets, such as those from Google and Microsoft, the LLSC dataset offers “labeled data, a variety of known AI workloads, and more detailed time series data compared with prior datasets. To our knowledge, it’s one of the most comprehensive and fine-grained datasets available,” Gadepally says. 

      Notably, the team collected time-series data at an unprecedented level of detail: 100-millisecond intervals on every GPU and 10-second intervals on every CPU, as the machines processed more than 3,000 known deep-learning jobs. One of the first goals is to use this labeled dataset to characterize the workloads that different types of deep-learning jobs place on the system. This process would extract features that reveal differences in how the hardware processes natural language models versus image classification or materials design models, for example.   

      The team has now launched the MIT Datacenter Challenge to mobilize this research. The challenge invites researchers to use AI techniques to identify with 95 percent accuracy the type of job that was run, using their labeled time-series data as ground truth.

      Such insights could enable data centers to better match a user’s job request with the hardware best suited for it, potentially conserving energy and improving system performance. Classifying workloads could also allow operators to quickly notice discrepancies resulting from hardware failures, inefficient data access patterns, or unauthorized usage.

      Too many choices

      Today, the LLSC offers tools that let users submit their job and select the processors they want to use, “but it’s a lot of guesswork on the part of users,” Samsi says. “Somebody might want to use the latest GPU, but maybe their computation doesn’t actually need it and they could get just as impressive results on CPUs, or lower-powered machines.”

      Professor Devesh Tiwari at Northeastern University is working with the LLSC team to develop techniques that can help users match their workloads to appropriate hardware. Tiwari explains that the emergence of different types of AI accelerators, GPUs, and CPUs has left users suffering from too many choices. Without the right tools to take advantage of this heterogeneity, they are missing out on the benefits: better performance, lower costs, and greater productivity.

      “We are fixing this very capability gap — making users more productive and helping users do science better and faster without worrying about managing heterogeneous hardware,” says Tiwari. “My PhD student, Baolin Li, is building new capabilities and tools to help HPC users leverage heterogeneity near-optimally without user intervention, using techniques grounded in Bayesian optimization and other learning-based optimization methods. But, this is just the beginning. We are looking into ways to introduce heterogeneity in our data centers in a principled approach to help our users achieve the maximum advantage of heterogeneity autonomously and cost-effectively.”

      Workload classification is the first of many problems to be posed through the Datacenter Challenge. Others include developing AI techniques to predict job failures, conserve energy, or create job scheduling approaches that improve data center cooling efficiencies.

      Energy conservation 

      To mobilize research into greener computing, the team is also planning to release an environmental dataset of TX-GAIA operations, containing rack temperature, power consumption, and other relevant data.

      According to the researchers, huge opportunities exist to improve the power efficiency of HPC systems being used for AI processing. As one example, recent work in the LLSC determined that simple hardware tuning, such as limiting the amount of power an individual GPU can draw, could reduce the energy cost of training an AI model by 20 percent, with only modest increases in computing time. “This reduction translates to approximately an entire week’s worth of household energy for a mere three-hour time increase,” Gadepally says.

      They have also been developing techniques to predict model accuracy, so that users can quickly terminate experiments that are unlikely to yield meaningful results, saving energy. The Datacenter Challenge will share relevant data to enable researchers to explore other opportunities to conserve energy.

      The team expects that lessons learned from this research can be applied to the thousands of data centers operated by the U.S. Department of Defense. The U.S. Air Force is a sponsor of this work, which is being conducted under the USAF-MIT AI Accelerator.

      Other collaborators include researchers at MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). Professor Charles Leiserson’s Supertech Research Group is investigating performance-enhancing techniques for parallel computing, and research scientist Neil Thompson is designing studies on ways to nudge data center users toward climate-friendly behavior.

      Samsi presented this work at the inaugural AI for Datacenter Optimization (ADOPT’22) workshop last spring as part of the IEEE International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium. The workshop officially introduced their Datacenter Challenge to the HPC community.

      “We hope this research will allow us and others who run supercomputing centers to be more responsive to user needs while also reducing the energy consumption at the center level,” Samsi says. More

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      Researchers discover major roadblock in alleviating network congestion

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      When users want to send data over the internet faster than the network can handle, congestion can occur — the same way traffic congestion snarls the morning commute into a big city.

      Computers and devices that transmit data over the internet break the data down into smaller packets and use a special algorithm to decide how fast to send those packets. These congestion control algorithms seek to fully discover and utilize available network capacity while sharing it fairly with other users who may be sharing the same network. These algorithms try to minimize delay caused by data waiting in queues in the network.

      Over the past decade, researchers in industry and academia have developed several algorithms that attempt to achieve high rates while controlling delays. Some of these, such as the BBR algorithm developed by Google, are now widely used by many websites and applications.

      But a team of MIT researchers has discovered that these algorithms can be deeply unfair. In a new study, they show there will always be a network scenario where at least one sender receives almost no bandwidth compared to other senders; that is, a problem known as “starvation” cannot be avoided.

      “What is really surprising about this paper and the results is that when you take into account the real-world complexity of network paths and all the things they can do to data packets, it is basically impossible for delay-controlling congestion control algorithms to avoid starvation using current methods,” says Mohammad Alizadeh, associate professor of electrical engineering and computer science (EECS).

      While Alizadeh and his co-authors weren’t able to find a traditional congestion control algorithm that could avoid starvation, there may be algorithms in a different class that could prevent this problem. Their analysis also suggests that changing how these algorithms work, so that they allow for larger variations in delay, could help prevent starvation in some network situations.

      Alizadeh wrote the paper with first author and EECS graduate student Venkat Arun and senior author Hari Balakrishnan, the Fujitsu Professor of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence. The research will be presented at the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Communications (SIGCOMM) conference.

      Controlling congestion

      Congestion control is a fundamental problem in networking that researchers have been trying to tackle since the 1980s.

      A user’s computer does not know how fast to send data packets over the network because it lacks information, such as the quality of the network connection or how many other senders are using the network. Sending packets too slowly makes poor use of the available bandwidth. But sending them too quickly can overwhelm the network, and in doing so, packets will start to get dropped. These packets must be resent, which leads to longer delays. Delays can also be caused by packets waiting in queues for a long time.

      Congestion control algorithms use packet losses and delays as signals to infer congestion and decide how fast to send data. But the internet is complicated, and packets can be delayed and lost for reasons unrelated to network congestion. For instance, data could be held up in a queue along the way and then released with a burst of other packets, or the receiver’s acknowledgement might be delayed. The authors call delays that are not caused by congestion “jitter.”

      Even if a congestion control algorithm measures delay perfectly, it can’t tell the difference between delay caused by congestion and delay caused by jitter. Delay caused by jitter is unpredictable and confuses the sender. Because of this ambiguity, users start estimating delay differently, which causes them to send packets at unequal rates. Eventually, this leads to a situation where starvation occurs and someone gets shut out completely, Arun explains.

      “We started the project because we lacked a theoretical understanding of congestion control behavior in the presence of jitter. To place it on a firmer theoretical footing, we built a mathematical model that was simple enough to think about, yet able to capture some of the complexities of the internet. It has been very rewarding to have math tell us things we didn’t know and that have practical relevance,” he says.

      Studying starvation

      The researchers fed their mathematical model to a computer, gave it a series of commonly used congestion control algorithms, and asked the computer to find an algorithm that could avoid starvation, using their model.

      “We couldn’t do it. We tried every algorithm that we are aware of, and some new ones we made up. Nothing worked. The computer always found a situation where some people get all the bandwidth and at least one person gets basically nothing,” Arun says.

      The researchers were surprised by this result, especially since these algorithms are widely believed to be reasonably fair. They started suspecting that it may not be possible to avoid starvation, an extreme form of unfairness. This motivated them to define a class of algorithms they call “delay-convergent algorithms” that they proved will always suffer from starvation under their network model. All existing congestion control algorithms that control delay (that the researchers are aware of) are delay-convergent.

      The fact that such simple failure modes of these widely used algorithms remained unknown for so long illustrates how difficult it is to understand algorithms through empirical testing alone, Arun adds. It underscores the importance of a solid theoretical foundation.

      But all hope is not lost. While all the algorithms they tested failed, there may be other algorithms which are not delay-convergent that might be able to avoid starvation This suggests that one way to fix the problem might be to design congestion control algorithms that vary the delay range more widely, so the range is larger than any delay that might occur due to jitter in the network.

      “To control delays, algorithms have tried to also bound the variations in delay about a desired equilibrium, but there is nothing wrong in potentially creating greater delay variation to get better measurements of congestive delays. It is just a new design philosophy you would have to adopt,” Balakrishnan adds.

      Now, the researchers want to keep pushing to see if they can find or build an algorithm that will eliminate starvation. They also want to apply this approach of mathematical modeling and computational proofs to other thorny, unsolved problems in networked systems.

      “We are increasingly reliant on computer systems for very critical things, and we need to put their reliability on a firmer conceptual footing. We’ve shown the surprising things you can discover when you put in the time to come up with these formal specifications of what the problem actually is,” says Alizadeh.

      The NASA University Leadership Initiative (grant #80NSSC20M0163) provided funds to assist the authors with their research, but the research paper solely reflects the opinions and conclusions of its authors and not any NASA entity. This work was also partially funded by the National Science Foundation, award number 1751009. More

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      A technique to improve both fairness and accuracy in artificial intelligence

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      For workers who use machine-learning models to help them make decisions, knowing when to trust a model’s predictions is not always an easy task, especially since these models are often so complex that their inner workings remain a mystery.

      Users sometimes employ a technique, known as selective regression, in which the model estimates its confidence level for each prediction and will reject predictions when its confidence is too low. Then a human can examine those cases, gather additional information, and make a decision about each one manually.

      But while selective regression has been shown to improve the overall performance of a model, researchers at MIT and the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab have discovered that the technique can have the opposite effect for underrepresented groups of people in a dataset. As the model’s confidence increases with selective regression, its chance of making the right prediction also increases, but this does not always happen for all subgroups.

      For instance, a model suggesting loan approvals might make fewer errors on average, but it may actually make more wrong predictions for Black or female applicants. One reason this can occur is due to the fact that the model’s confidence measure is trained using overrepresented groups and may not be accurate for these underrepresented groups.

      Once they had identified this problem, the MIT researchers developed two algorithms that can remedy the issue. Using real-world datasets, they show that the algorithms reduce performance disparities that had affected marginalized subgroups.

      “Ultimately, this is about being more intelligent about which samples you hand off to a human to deal with. Rather than just minimizing some broad error rate for the model, we want to make sure the error rate across groups is taken into account in a smart way,” says senior MIT author Greg Wornell, the Sumitomo Professor in Engineering in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) who leads the Signals, Information, and Algorithms Laboratory in the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) and is a member of the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab.

      Joining Wornell on the paper are co-lead authors Abhin Shah, an EECS graduate student, and Yuheng Bu, a postdoc in RLE; as well as Joshua Ka-Wing Lee SM ’17, ScD ’21 and Subhro Das, Rameswar Panda, and Prasanna Sattigeri, research staff members at the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. The paper will be presented this month at the International Conference on Machine Learning.

      To predict or not to predict

      Regression is a technique that estimates the relationship between a dependent variable and independent variables. In machine learning, regression analysis is commonly used for prediction tasks, such as predicting the price of a home given its features (number of bedrooms, square footage, etc.) With selective regression, the machine-learning model can make one of two choices for each input — it can make a prediction or abstain from a prediction if it doesn’t have enough confidence in its decision.

      When the model abstains, it reduces the fraction of samples it is making predictions on, which is known as coverage. By only making predictions on inputs that it is highly confident about, the overall performance of the model should improve. But this can also amplify biases that exist in a dataset, which occur when the model does not have sufficient data from certain subgroups. This can lead to errors or bad predictions for underrepresented individuals.

      The MIT researchers aimed to ensure that, as the overall error rate for the model improves with selective regression, the performance for every subgroup also improves. They call this monotonic selective risk.

      “It was challenging to come up with the right notion of fairness for this particular problem. But by enforcing this criteria, monotonic selective risk, we can make sure the model performance is actually getting better across all subgroups when you reduce the coverage,” says Shah.

      Focus on fairness

      The team developed two neural network algorithms that impose this fairness criteria to solve the problem.

      One algorithm guarantees that the features the model uses to make predictions contain all information about the sensitive attributes in the dataset, such as race and sex, that is relevant to the target variable of interest. Sensitive attributes are features that may not be used for decisions, often due to laws or organizational policies. The second algorithm employs a calibration technique to ensure the model makes the same prediction for an input, regardless of whether any sensitive attributes are added to that input.

      The researchers tested these algorithms by applying them to real-world datasets that could be used in high-stakes decision making. One, an insurance dataset, is used to predict total annual medical expenses charged to patients using demographic statistics; another, a crime dataset, is used to predict the number of violent crimes in communities using socioeconomic information. Both datasets contain sensitive attributes for individuals.

      When they implemented their algorithms on top of a standard machine-learning method for selective regression, they were able to reduce disparities by achieving lower error rates for the minority subgroups in each dataset. Moreover, this was accomplished without significantly impacting the overall error rate.

      “We see that if we don’t impose certain constraints, in cases where the model is really confident, it could actually be making more errors, which could be very costly in some applications, like health care. So if we reverse the trend and make it more intuitive, we will catch a lot of these errors. A major goal of this work is to avoid errors going silently undetected,” Sattigeri says.

      The researchers plan to apply their solutions to other applications, such as predicting house prices, student GPA, or loan interest rate, to see if the algorithms need to be calibrated for those tasks, says Shah. They also want to explore techniques that use less sensitive information during the model training process to avoid privacy issues.

      And they hope to improve the confidence estimates in selective regression to prevent situations where the model’s confidence is low, but its prediction is correct. This could reduce the workload on humans and further streamline the decision-making process, Sattigeri says.

      This research was funded, in part, by the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab and its member companies Boston Scientific, Samsung, and Wells Fargo, and by the National Science Foundation. More

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      Costis Daskalakis appointed inaugural Avanessians Professor in the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing

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      The MIT Stephen A. Schwarzman College of Computing has named Costis Daskalakis as the inaugural holder of the Avanessians Professorship. His chair began on July 1.

      Daskalakis is the first person appointed to this position generously endowed by Armen Avanessians ’81. Established in the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing, the new chair provides Daskalakis with additional support to pursue his research and develop his career.

      “I’m delighted to recognize Costis for his scholarship and extraordinary achievements with this distinguished professorship,” says Daniel Huttenlocher, dean of the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing and the Henry Ellis Warren Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science.

      A professor in the MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Daskalakis is a theoretical computer scientist who works at the interface of game theory, economics, probability theory, statistics, and machine learning. He has resolved long-standing open problems about the computational complexity of the Nash equilibrium, the mathematical structure and computational complexity of multi-item auctions, and the behavior of machine-learning methods such as the expectation-maximization algorithm. He has obtained computationally and statistically efficient methods for statistical hypothesis testing and learning in high-dimensional settings, as well as results characterizing the structure and concentration properties of high-dimensional distributions. His current work focuses on multi-agent learning, learning from biased and dependent data, causal inference, and econometrics.

      A native of Greece, Daskalakis joined the MIT faculty in 2009. He is a member of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and is affiliated with the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems and the Operations Research Center. He is also an investigator in the Foundations of Data Science Institute.

      He has previously received such honors as the 2018 Nevanlinna Prize from the International Mathematical Union, the 2018 ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award, the Kalai Game Theory and Computer Science Prize from the Game Theory Society, and the 2008 ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award. More

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      in Data Management & Statistics

      Teaching AI to ask clinical questions

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      Physicians often query a patient’s electronic health record for information that helps them make treatment decisions, but the cumbersome nature of these records hampers the process. Research has shown that even when a doctor has been trained to use an electronic health record (EHR), finding an answer to just one question can take, on average, more than eight minutes.

      The more time physicians must spend navigating an oftentimes clunky EHR interface, the less time they have to interact with patients and provide treatment.

      Researchers have begun developing machine-learning models that can streamline the process by automatically finding information physicians need in an EHR. However, training effective models requires huge datasets of relevant medical questions, which are often hard to come by due to privacy restrictions. Existing models struggle to generate authentic questions — those that would be asked by a human doctor — and are often unable to successfully find correct answers.

      To overcome this data shortage, researchers at MIT partnered with medical experts to study the questions physicians ask when reviewing EHRs. Then, they built a publicly available dataset of more than 2,000 clinically relevant questions written by these medical experts.

      When they used their dataset to train a machine-learning model to generate clinical questions, they found that the model asked high-quality and authentic questions, as compared to real questions from medical experts, more than 60 percent of the time.

      With this dataset, they plan to generate vast numbers of authentic medical questions and then use those questions to train a machine-learning model which would help doctors find sought-after information in a patient’s record more efficiently.

      “Two thousand questions may sound like a lot, but when you look at machine-learning models being trained nowadays, they have so much data, maybe billions of data points. When you train machine-learning models to work in health care settings, you have to be really creative because there is such a lack of data,” says lead author Eric Lehman, a graduate student in the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL).

      The senior author is Peter Szolovits, a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) who heads the Clinical Decision-Making Group in CSAIL and is also a member of the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. The research paper, a collaboration between co-authors at MIT, the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab, IBM Research, and the doctors and medical experts who helped create questions and participated in the study, will be presented at the annual conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics.

      “Realistic data is critical for training models that are relevant to the task yet difficult to find or create,” Szolovits says. “The value of this work is in carefully collecting questions asked by clinicians about patient cases, from which we are able to develop methods that use these data and general language models to ask further plausible questions.”

      Data deficiency

      The few large datasets of clinical questions the researchers were able to find had a host of issues, Lehman explains. Some were composed of medical questions asked by patients on web forums, which are a far cry from physician questions. Other datasets contained questions produced from templates, so they are mostly identical in structure, making many questions unrealistic.

      “Collecting high-quality data is really important for doing machine-learning tasks, especially in a health care context, and we’ve shown that it can be done,” Lehman says.

      To build their dataset, the MIT researchers worked with practicing physicians and medical students in their last year of training. They gave these medical experts more than 100 EHR discharge summaries and told them to read through a summary and ask any questions they might have. The researchers didn’t put any restrictions on question types or structures in an effort to gather natural questions. They also asked the medical experts to identify the “trigger text” in the EHR that led them to ask each question.

      For instance, a medical expert might read a note in the EHR that says a patient’s past medical history is significant for prostate cancer and hypothyroidism. The trigger text “prostate cancer” could lead the expert to ask questions like “date of diagnosis?” or “any interventions done?”

      They found that most questions focused on symptoms, treatments, or the patient’s test results. While these findings weren’t unexpected, quantifying the number of questions about each broad topic will help them build an effective dataset for use in a real, clinical setting, says Lehman.

      Once they had compiled their dataset of questions and accompanying trigger text, they used it to train machine-learning models to ask new questions based on the trigger text.

      Then the medical experts determined whether those questions were “good” using four metrics: understandability (Does the question make sense to a human physician?), triviality (Is the question too easily answerable from the trigger text?), medical relevance (Does it makes sense to ask this question based on the context?), and relevancy to the trigger (Is the trigger related to the question?).

      Cause for concern

      The researchers found that when a model was given trigger text, it was able to generate a good question 63 percent of the time, whereas a human physician would ask a good question 80 percent of the time.

      They also trained models to recover answers to clinical questions using the publicly available datasets they had found at the outset of this project. Then they tested these trained models to see if they could find answers to “good” questions asked by human medical experts.

      The models were only able to recover about 25 percent of answers to physician-generated questions.

      “That result is really concerning. What people thought were good-performing models were, in practice, just awful because the evaluation questions they were testing on were not good to begin with,” Lehman says.

      The team is now applying this work toward their initial goal: building a model that can automatically answer physicians’ questions in an EHR. For the next step, they will use their dataset to train a machine-learning model that can automatically generate thousands or millions of good clinical questions, which can then be used to train a new model for automatic question answering.

      While there is still much work to do before that model could be a reality, Lehman is encouraged by the strong initial results the team demonstrated with this dataset.

      This research was supported, in part, by the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. Additional co-authors include Leo Anthony Celi of the MIT Institute for Medical Engineering and Science; Preethi Raghavan and Jennifer J. Liang of the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab; Dana Moukheiber of the University of Buffalo; Vladislav Lialin and Anna Rumshisky of the University of Massachusetts at Lowell; Katelyn Legaspi, Nicole Rose I. Alberto, Richard Raymund R. Ragasa, Corinna Victoria M. Puyat, Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, and Pia Gabrielle I. Alfonso of the University of the Philippines; Anne Janelle R. Sy and Patricia Therese S. Pile of the University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center; Marianne Taliño of the Ateneo de Manila University School of Medicine and Public Health; and Byron C. Wallace of Northeastern University. More

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      in Data Management & Statistics

      MIT welcomes eight MLK Visiting Professors and Scholars for 2022-23

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      From space traffic to virus evolution, community journalism to hip-hop, this year’s cohort in the Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) Visiting Professors and Scholars Program will power an unprecedented range of intellectual pursuits during their time on the MIT campus. 

      “MIT is so fortunate to have this group of remarkable individuals join us,” says Institute Community and Equity Officer John Dozier. “They bring a range and depth of knowledge to share with our students and faculty, and we look forward to working with them to build a stronger sense of community across the Institute.”

      Since its inception in 1990, the MLK Scholars Program has hosted more than 135 visiting professors, practitioners, and intellectuals who enhance and enrich the MIT community through their engagement with students and faculty. The program, which honors the life and legacy of MLK by increasing the presence and recognizing the contributions of underrepresented scholars, is supported by the Office of the Provost with oversight from the Institute Community and Equity Office. 

      In spring 2022, MIT President Rafael Reif committed to MIT to adding two new positions in the MLK Visiting Scholars Program, including an expert in Native American studies. Those additional positions will be filled in the coming year.  

      The 2022-23 MLK Scholars:

      Daniel Auguste is an assistant professor in the Department of Sociology at Florida Atlantic University and is hosted by Roberto Fernandez in MIT Sloan School of Management. Auguste’s research interests include social inequalities in entrepreneurship development. During his visit, Auguste will study the impact of education debt burden and wealth inequality on business ownership and success, and how these consequences differ by race and ethnicity.

      Tawanna Dillahunt is an associate professor in the School of Information at the University of Michigan, where she also holds an appointment with the electrical engineering and computer science department. Catherine D’Ignazio in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning and Fotini Christia in the Institute for Data, Systems, and Society are her faculty hosts. Dillahunt’s scholarship focuses on equitable and inclusive computing. She identifies technological opportunities and implements tools to address and alleviate employment challenges faced by marginalized people. Dillahunt’s visiting appointment begins in September 2023.

      Javit Drake ’94 is a principal scientist in modeling and simulation and measurement sciences at Proctor & Gamble. His faculty host is Fikile Brushett in the Department of Chemical Engineering. An industry researcher with electrochemical energy expertise, Drake is a Course 10 (chemical engineering) alumnus, repeat lecturer, and research affiliate in the department. During his visit, he will continue to work with the Brushett Research Group to deepen his research and understanding of battery technologies while he innovates from those discoveries.

      Eunice Ferreira is an associate professor in the Department of Theater at Skidmore College and is hosted by Claire Conceison in Music and Theater Arts. This fall, Ferreira will teach “Black Theater Matters,” a course where students will explore performance and the cultural production of Black intellectuals and artists on Broadway and in local communities. Her upcoming book projects include “Applied Theatre and Racial Justice: Radical Imaginings for Just Communities” (forthcoming from Routledge) and “Crioulo Performance: Remapping Creole and Mixed Race Theatre” (forthcoming from Vanderbilt University Press). 

      Wasalu Jaco, widely known as Lupe Fiasco, is a rapper, record producer, and entrepreneur. He will be co-hosted by Nick Montfort of Comparative Media Studies/Writing and Mary Fuller of Literature. Jaco’s interests lie in the nexus of rap, computing, and activism. As a former visiting artist in MIT’s Center for Art, Science and Technology (CAST), he will leverage existing collaborations and participate in digital media and art research projects that use computing to explore novel questions related to hip-hop and rap. In addition to his engagement in cross-departmental projects, Jaco will teach a spring course on rap in the media and social contexts.

      Moribah Jah is an associate professor in the Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Department at the University of Texas at Austin. He is hosted by Danielle Wood in Media Arts and Sciences and the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, and Richard Linares in the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Jah’s research interests include space sustainability and space traffic management; as a visiting scholar, he will develop and strengthen a joint MIT/UT-Austin research program to increase resources and visibility of space sustainability. Jah will also help host the AeroAstro Rising Stars symposium, which highlights graduate students, postdocs, and early-career faculty from backgrounds underrepresented in aerospace engineering. 

      Louis Massiah SM ’82 is a documentary filmmaker and the founder and director of community media of Scribe Video Center, a nonprofit organization that uses media as a tool for social change. His work focuses on empowering Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) filmmakers to tell the stories of/by BIPOC communities. Massiah is hosted by Vivek Bald in Creative Media Studies/Writing. Massiah’s first project will be the launch of a National Community Media Journalism Consortium, a platform to share local news on a broader scale across communities.

      Brian Nord, a scientist at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, will join the Laboratory for Nuclear Science, hosted by Jesse Thaler in the Department of Physics. Nord’s research interests include the connection between ethics, justice, and scientific discovery. His efforts will be aimed at introducing new insights into how we model physical systems, design scientific experiments, and approach the ethics of artificial intelligence. As a lead organizer of the Strike for Black Lives in 2020, Nord will engage with justice-oriented members of the MIT physics community to strategize actions for advocacy and activism.

      Brandon Ogbunu, an assistant professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Yale University, will be hosted by Matthew Shoulders in the Department of Chemistry. Ogbunu’s research focus is on implementing chemistry and materials science perspectives into his work on virus evolution. In addition to serving as a guest lecturer in graduate courses, he will be collaborating with the Office of Engineering Outreach Programs on their K-12 outreach and recruitment efforts.

      For more information about these scholars and the program, visit mlkscholars.mit.edu. More